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Banks arc different in different countries. Let's speak about the banks in the United Stales of America. There, commercial banks arc classified into two main groups. First, there are national banks. They arc charted and supervised by the Federal Government. Secondly, thcrearcslale banks. They are Charted and supervised by the state in which they arc operated. All commercial banks can make loans to borrowers.
Major commercial banks in such cities as Tokyo, Paris, Rio cooperate with each other. In this way they finance imports and exports between countries.
An importer buys merchandise from another country using ihc currency of that country. For that purpose he buys this currency from the foreign exchange department of his bank. And in the same way if an exporter receives foreign money from sales to other countries, he sells this currency to his bank. By this method the currency of any couniry can usually be exchanged.
Active Vocabulary
commercial bank -national bank -to charter -to supervise -‘state bank -merchandise -currency -
коммерческий банк национальный банк учреждать, создавать заведовать, контролировать государственный банк товары
валюта, деньги
foreign exchange dcpartmcnl-отдел обмена валюты to exchange currency - обменивать валют
Comprehension Questions
1. What do all commercial banks do?
2. What kinds of commercial batiks in the USA do you know? What are they called?
3. Who supervises: the operations of national bank?
4. What kind of currency does an importer generally use when he buys goods from another country? .
5. What do you know about the "international exchange"?
6. What is the currency of this country called?
7. What is the exchange rate between youf currency and the currency of the USA and Germany? How can you find it out if you don’t know it?
Vocabulary Practice
Exercise 1. Choose (he necessary word and put it in the sentence.
1. Federal government.....and.....all
national banks.
2. International cooperation between
banks makes it possible.....imports and
exports.
3. It is possible to convert American dollars to Swiss francs in.....department.
4. The.....of Germany is the mark.
5. All.....banks make loans to borrowers.
6. If the importer buys.....from another
country he will pay for it iii the currency of this country.
11 merchandise
12 currency
I
I
13 commercial
i
14 foreign exchange
15 to finance
16 to supervise J
17 to charter
Dialogue
( A banker’s office in New York City. Mr. Smith, a Vice
President, is speaking to Bill Wilson).
Smith O.K. Bill. As a secretary you ought to know ccrtain things about banking.
Dill That’s what I vyant. I hope to make my career in
banking..
Smith And what bank services are you familiar with?
Bill Oh, let me sec. ( am familiar with checking and savings accounts, safety deposit boxes, insurance
and things like that.
Smith it is something.
Bill Bu.l I don’t have a clear idea of Ihe services which banks offer to business. ,
Smith O.K. Let's discuss it then. In fact ii is more directly concerned with what passes over my desk.
Bill I think businesses come to the banks for loans.
Smith You are right. Banks' make loans to corporations, to organizations, individuals and to small companies. For this service, we always charge interest.
Bill" Bait how can a bank decide whether a business should receive a loan.
Smith First of all we request a financial statement. It
shows what the company has in inventory, accounts receivable and other assets and liabilities.
Profit and loss statement shows the company's income and expenses.
Bill In other words you look over the financial situation • of a business.
Smith Exactly. If the company is eligible for a loan, ii may choose a long-term loan or a short-term loan.
ВШ I see. And how much interest does the bank charge on these loans?
Smith It can be different. .We have so-called prime-rate,
. Stoat is the lowest interest rate available si the psuticatar time. Only p-efered customers can have it.
Bill Who decides on prime-rate then?
Smiefe Major Sending tanks do,
ВШ Oh, J must Suiow that. Aiid'very, often I hear the" ’ tenp "a line of credit”. I have a vague idea what it is. _
Smith A line of credit is themaximum amount of money’ * that'a company сак borrow from’a bank. This fop: amount of customer’s credit is biased on th«; profits and earnings of a business. ' ’’ ! .'
Bill WeiJ. Then it is very important to, have,a good line of credit, isn’t it?
Smith ’ Sure. A bank also issues letters of credit. Suph letter says that its holder can borrow up a certain sum of money. Or a bank can also issue a letter of credit for a person who goes to the other country where another bank is involved. Then there is the credit reference letter which recommends a company to its suppliers, and well -1 could go on all morning!
Bill Thank you. It’s very useful information.
njinllh O.K. We can pass on to a more complicated subject. That is tax service.
Active Vocabulary
banking -
Hi make a career in smth. lunik services -i'hocking account -livings account -
xifcty deposit Ьож -
insurance -
hi make з loan to smb. -lo !>c eiigibie for a loan •
long-term loan -short-term loan prime-rate-
I (referred customer -lo be available -
line of credit -lo borrow ■■ letter of credit -c redit reference letter -
банковское дело сделать карьеру в чем-либо банковские услуги чековый счет сберегательный счет с установленным процентом сейф для депозитов, предоставляемый частным лицам в банке страхование давать заем кому-либо подходящий для займа (т.е. признаваемый платежеспособным) долгосрочный заем краткосрочный заем наименьший процент со ссуди, установленный в определенное время я в определенном месте привилегированный клиент ■ ' наличный, имеющейся в распоряжений кредитный лимит занимать
кредитное письмо, аккредитив рекомендательное кредитное письмо
Vocabulary Exercises II wt'dic 1. Change she sentences jsecording № the model.
Mode I: We use the safety deposit boxes (sometimes). We sometimes use the safety deposit boxes.
1. Ail the banks provide credit services (usually).
2. Banks give investment advice (sometimes).
.1. Banks charge interest (always).
4. You can borrow шоцеу quickly (rarely).
5. Businesses want to borrow money (frequently).
6. The amount of inlcrest depends on (he prinuv’t'tllc (generally).
7. Companies need a line of credit (seldom).
8. A line of credit is available (occasionally).
Exercise 2. Change I he sentences from active into passive according to the model.
Model: They use the safety deposit boxes very often.
Safety deposit boxes are used very often by them.
1. Federal government supervises and charters national
banks.
2. This bank is asking ten percent interest.
3. The bank requests a financial statement of the company.
4. Their company lakes a long-term loan from the Federal
Bank.
5. The executive shows the company’s expenses.
6. The manager is instructing the secretary.
Exercise 3. Answer tSue questions.
h Is there a difference between banking systems in (he USSR and western countries? What is the difference?
2. What bank services are you familiar with?
3. Do the banks in this country have safety deposit boxes?
4. Whom do the banks make loans to in this country?
5. What kind of loan would you prefer, long-term loan or short-term Joan?
6. What prime-rates are available in this country?
7. What does the line of credit of the enterprise depend on? .
8. What is a credit letter written for?
9. What can one do with credit reference letter.?
Excites® 4,
1- Speak about banking system in the USSR.
2. Make up a dialogue between a bankman and a customer, who wants to take a long-term ( short-term) loan.
Exercise 5. Translate into English.
1. Государство учреждает коммерческие банки.
2. Если ты хочешь купить товары за границей, тьг должен поменять деньги в отделе обмена валюты.
3. Я бы хот<1я сделать карьеру в банковском деле.
4. Все банки устанавливают проценты на ссуду.
5. Наш банк намерен предоставить краткосрочную ссуду этому предприятию.
6. Наименьший процент со ссуды предоставляется привилегированным клиентам.
7. Банки могут выпускать аккредитивы и рекомендательные кредитные письма.
8. Я намерен занять крупную сумму денег.
9. Банк считает, что это предприятие платежеспособно и ему можно предоставить заем.
Grammar Exercises Exercise). Make the sentences negative.
Model: This commercial bank had already stopped to exist when the war started.
This commercial bank hadn’t slopped to exist yet when the war started.
1. He had already changed currency when I-rang him up yesterday.
2. They had already chartered the commercial bank when 1 organized my private cafe.
3. He had looked over the financial statement by five o’clock yesterday. .
4. My brother had made a career in banking when he was 26.
5. He had put all his money on his sayings account before the money reform was introduced.
'* ' . .■ -c •
Esercisc 2. Put up four questions off different types(geiseriiJ,.
special, disjunctive, alternative) lo each .sentence.
Model: They had written a credit reference letter before he left abroad.
1. Had they written a credit reference letter before he left abroad?.
2. What had they written before he left abroad?
3. They had written a credit reference letter.before he left abroad; hadn’t they?
4. Had. they'written a credit reference letter or a credit letter before he left!abroad? . •
1. He had;,b'deri a. preferred' qistomer for this bank till his business was Successful.
2. My parents has settled everything connected with insurance before they retired on pension.
3. He had borrowed the money before I managed to find him..
4. The lawyer had given me investment advice before I asked him about it.
5. He had arrived to the conclusion to take a long-term loan when I met him yesterday.
LESSON 9
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT and PLANNING
Text
The number of new products coming into the market of western countries every year is overwhelming. The major part of these products is not-aewr^bul adaptations. It means that these products are-rrot-newrthey-flreexisting items to which a modification has been made. Only few products are really original pr innovations. For instance a clock-telcvision is an adaptation, but TV-set itself, the refrigerator - each was an innovation.'A great number of Innovations and adaptations are designed, produced and marketed by small businesses. Very often a new product is formed on the basis of the new business. Sometimes there is a patent to ma.ke the business more successful. But it happens very often that m'&rket research hasn’t been done carefully.
Even in case larger scale producers'do more research and testing there is. no-sure success. A promising new product maay be also robbed of success by unreasonable prices, inadequate promotion and poor selling, methods. Generally Sess than one fifth of ail new products turn out to be profitable.
Active Vocabulary
product development -adaptation ~
modification -
innovation -patent -
развитие нрошюсдетна что-либо переделанное, приспособленное
модификация, видоизменение нововведение, йоводество патент
Иш'КО scale producer -Itiomlsing product -ншшюпаЫе price -lutulequate -
крупный производитель перспективный продукт неразумная цена недостаточный, не соответствующий требованиям
Comprehension Questions
1. How can you explain the term adaptation?
I. What is an innovation?
3. Give your own examples of innovations and adaptations.
4, Why are' many innovations and adaptations iMUHufactured and marketed by small businesses*?
5, Why is it so important to obtain a patent?
6. Why does the fail иге of a new product take piace?
Vocabulary Practice
H'eoreUe I. ■ Choose (benecessary word arid put it in the sentence.
I. Though market research tries to predict-11 адаршкш
the trends, there is no sure... . . I
This product isn *t original, it is an... . 12 iuaovatton
J.office receives applications from . I ■
many young inventors. ' i 3 inadequate
4. if the price is;..,-the product won’t be . I
sold out. ■ 14 patent
Л. A clock-television is an adaptation but I
(he television itself is an... ■ ■ 15 failure
6. If a sure... is stopped,.money jand time I
can be saved. ,16 success
7. They failed because of... promotion f
campaign. 17 unreasonable
Dialogue
( Dick and Jack are having lunch. Dick is Vice President m charge of Product Development. And Jack is Vice President in charge of the Legal Department).
Dick How are the things?
Jack Great. We are busy with a new line of dock-tele vision.
Dick Sounds interesting. Are you going to apply for a patent soon?
Jack Yes, we are. We are preparing the necessary pitpm now.
Dick And what did the Market Research say by the way?
Jack They think there is fair market for the product at the inoment but it will take a few years to catch on.
Dick I see. We'll have to turn a good promotional campaign.
Jack Without doubt.
Dick Well, it will be our advantage to have the patent on it as well. You have decided on the size, haven’t you?
Jack ' We’ll start with a smail screen'model, [t will have a wake-up button and go-to-sleep button with timers. Market Resiearch says that theautomatic go-to-sleep button may be the bigger selling' point.
Dick Yes. The.idea of a set that turns itself off is great.
To tell you the truth I’m always falling asleep in the middle of the show. Now it can be done.
Jack Well. In future we’ll probably expand the line to include different size screens and colour.
Dick ■ That’s good.
Jack f ttoink we are close to a big success.
Dkk That is why we must be verycarefuj. Before we Begin to market television we must fulfil the most complete testing.
Jack You are right.
Dick What about the pricing? Has it been worked out?
Jack Not completely. Market Research Department says we can’t have too high price on this kind of item;
D5ck It’s evident we must be very careful. Maybe this time consumers will really surprise us.
Jack Let’s hope for the best.
Active Vocabulary
to apply for a patent-fair market -
to cath onto be a big selling point -
to fulfil the testing -to market -
подать заявление на патент &д.) благоприятные рыночные условия стать модным быть притягательным для покупателей завершить исследование продавать
Vocabulary Practice
Kxcrcise 1. Change (he sentences according (o the model.
Model: We must fulfil complete testing.
Complete testing must be fulfilled.
1. They must expand the line.
2. You could apply for a patent.
3. They should work out the<letails.:
4. J must develop a new trend.
5. We should design a line of clock-televiision.
6. You should start market research.
Exercise 2. Answer the questions.
3. Why is it so important fora producer to apply fora patent? ■2. How much time does it usually take for a new product to catch on?
3. What is a big selling point of the i terns which you produce?
4. In what way can a consumer surprise the, producer?
5. Would you like to produce something original or an adaptation? Explain why. ‘
6. What are the conditions of successful product development?
7. What products are the tnarkei conditions fair for in this Country?
Exercise 3. Т.гяадШе into English.
1. Этот продукт - модификация старого.
2. Мелкие производители выпускают большое количество товаров.
3. Вам необходимо получить патент на производство данного товара.
4. Тщательное исследование рынка необходимо, чтобы гарантировать успех.
5. Потребуется пять лет на то, чтобы вага продукт завоевал признание.
6. Отключающее устройство с таймером - именно то, что привлечет потребителя.
7. Надо завершить все исследования, прежде чем мы начнем продавать наш продукт.
8. Нам необходимо расширить линию.
Kxerclsc 4. Speak about product development of your business.Ask your collegue how he would plan product development.
Grammar Exercises
Exercise 1. Make the sentences negative.
Model; I will have (he .drawings prepared very nwii.
I won't have the drawings prepared very noon.
1. It will lake much time to catch on.
2.1 am sure this thing will be the biggest soiling |ю1ш.
3. They will run a good advertising company.
4. They will make a new modification of electronic watch.
5. This price will be inadequate.
Exercise 2. Put Tour questions of different types to each MSStcnee (general, special, alternative, disjunctive).
Model:. They will influence the consumer to buy their automobiles.
■ 1 .Will they influence the consumer to buy their automobiles?
‘2. Who wall influence the consumer to buy their automobiles?
3. They will influence the consumer to buy their automobiles, won’t they?
4. Will they influence the consumer to toy iheir automobiles or other goods?
1. Their products will be available in every shop.
2. The company will start their pro®otion campaign very soon.
3. Our bank will make a loan to this corporation.
4. They will need a lawyer to form their business.
5.1 will consult my partner.
LESSON 10
MARKETING
Text
Mmketing includes all the business activities connected with hr «movement of goods and services from producers to MiNHttittrs. Sometimes it is called distribution. On tine one ml, marketing is made up of such activities as transporting, tutiiiH and selling goods and, on the other hand, a series of ti Mmss you make during tfoie process of moving goods from 'иЛиссг to user. Marketing operations include product iii/missg,buying, storage, pricing/promotion, seUmg, credit, rwffii: and marketing research.
/’he ability to recognize early' trends is very important. t*i«fiuccrs jnust kaow why, where, for what purpose the s twwm&rs buy. Market research heips the producer it:» predict I the people will want. And through advertising he attempts (и Influence the customer to buy. Marketing operations are vfi у expensive. They take up more than half of the consumer’s rfujl/ir., The trend in ifte USA has bee 0 to high aass KditNumptioa. The constracfen of good shopping ceratras has nHrtflt.1 goods available {©давдшаегаг.’Л provided a wide range of mnvhandise and plenty of parking facilities.
Active Vocabulary
producer-(onsumer -ll?(er "
distribution -
marketing -transporting -?doring -storage -
product planning -
.производитель потребитель потребите» сбыт., раевределевиме продажа, сбыт, маркетинг транспортировка складирование, храиеше хранение
разработка шш «продуктов
LESSON 12 RETAILING
Text
Retailing is selling goods and services to the ultimate consumer. Thus, the retailer is the most expensive link in the chain of distribution. Being middlemen, they make their profit by charging the customer 25 So 100 per cent more than the price they paid for the item.
The retailers operate.through..stores, mail-order houses, vending machine operators. There are different types of retail . stores: department stores,’ discount houses, cooperatives, single line retailers. The major part (over 95 per cent) of retail establishments concentrate on a single line of merchandise for example, food, hardware, etc. Bui nowadays there is a trend for many single line stores to take on a. greater variety of sisppiies.
The- retailer performs many necessary- functions. First, he may provide a convenient location. Second, he often guarantees and services the merchandise he sells. Third, the retailer helps to promote the product through displays, advertising, or sales people. Fourth, the retailer caa 'fmance the customer by extending credit. Also the retailer stores the goods in his outlet by having goods available.
Active Vocabulary
retailing -
ultimate consumer -link-
mail-order house -vending machine operator-
розничная продажа конечный потребитель звено, связь посылторг оператор торговых автоматических машин /(продающих мелкие товары:
discount house -
cooperative -single line retailer •
to perform functions -extending credit outlet -
discount -
газеты, сигареты и т.д.) магазин с относительно низкими ценами на товары Л кооператив розничный торговец, продающий какой-либо один товар выполнять функции длительный кредит рынок сбыта, торговая точка скидка
Com'preltensidn Questions ■
1. What is: retailing? •• •
2. Whatai-e four-different types of rietail stores?
3. Wikat are at least two types of retailing tot do not include the use of a store?
4. In what way does a retailer serve a customer?
5. Iri.what way does a retailer serve a manufacturer?
6-. Which per cent of.the price of the good sold goes to the retailer? ". .
7.. What is the trend with a single line retailer now?
Vocabulary Practice
BuevciKe 1. Put lilie accessary word in the sentence.
1. ... is one function a retailer шау i perform. 11 mail-order
2. You can buy newspapers, cigarettes, I cookies from a.... rediscount
3.... is the most expensive link in the 13 vending-chain between a producer and a consumer. 1 machine
4. The firm ... good Quality of the I
product. 14 guarantees
5. She doesn’t like to go shopping, she I prefakers to do it by .... 15 retailer
6. The department store is having a sale I
and there is a 20 per cent... on all ) 6 extending light dresses. I credit
7. Wholesaler is an important... between t
a producer and a consumer. 17 link
Dialogue
(Jean has just moved into a new house. Her neighbour, Liz, has come over to welcome her.)
Jean I am very glad to see you here. - '
Liz . ; ' How do you Икс the new place?
Jean It’s marvelous, I&nisure we are going to love living here.
Liz Well, have a look, here it’s a shopping guide for the
neighbourhood and a booklet of discount coupons. New neighbours always receive them. There is one coupon for every store in the shopping guide. Jean Oh, thank you. It’s come in time. I have a lot of, shopping to do.
Liz J can imagine, having just moved in. Not far from here there’s a very good shopping center. You cass. aiso find a huge supermarket, a drugstore, some :..., department stores in the neighbourhood,'
Jean Great. Are there any small stores nearby? ..',. / Li г Oh, yes. Themap is right here in the shopping',
• guide. There is a little drugstore a few blocks away, a little grocery store next to it, a little boutique, an ice cream parlor/a p&fea place. You can find a plant store not far from here too.
Jean Are there any good discount foouises' nearby?
■' terribly need a new toastehEve^bodlyta my famiJy. ; likes leasts for breakfasts very mtacfo. 1 like to buy it/ • ■■ •'
Oh, sure. There is a good discount store in the , shopping center. If you like, I’ll come with you.
Oh, you needn’t. I don’t want to trouble you.
No trouble at all. I’d like to do some shopping tcui.'
If we go to the discount center I can go to that . little cheese shop. I don’t want to bothier you.
It’s no bother at all. Make out your shopping list and I’ll be your guide. By the way, you can use your discount coupon for the: toaster.
I am sure you’ll buy a good one.
Well, it'll take some time to make a shopping list.
I’ll have to buy a lot at the grocer’s, this is a good. idea. I should have gone shopping yesterday; so ГИ make up my list too. ' >
By the way, I like your' dress very much; It’s a perfect fit. Where did you buy it, if youdon’t mind my. askiftg? ' ...
Thank you for compliment, I got it at a Very nicfe
little boutique. It's abit expensive, but there arc many interesting and original things. If you are interested wecaastcipthere.
Jean I’m afraid I,can’t, I have to cook dinner.
Liz Oh, don’t trouble yourself with, the dinner. Look over the coupons I ve given you. You can go out to dinner at a discount store. ..
Active Vocabulary
shopping guide - справочник магазинов
discount coupon - талон, дающий право
приобретения товара по более низкой цене store- магазин
department store-" универмаг
supermarket ' супермаркет
grocery- бакалея
shopping center - торговый- центр
. Vocabulary Рпквде
iterate «,, Ctwigo the швШке« accsmdfag'Jo itie twnteJ.
Mode 1: My wife usually asks the children to do- shopping. My wife тщИу makes children do shopping.
1. He’ll ask single line retailers to take part in the promotion campaign. • '
2. The chief изиаЛу asks his immediate subordinates to psrfqnu different functions, „ ,
3. it’s accessary to ask Ыш to rewgnize his wholesaling units. ' ■ . 1 !
4. It’s important to influence ultimate consumer-to buy this product.-..
5. Ask him to buy ali!,these .things in the discount house.
EKcrcise 1. Mafce respoase* to Use sefilsmeeaf according to the model.
Model: I want to ask your brother to doshopping today. ■Let me do shopping to
1.1 want my secretary to prepare the financial statement.
2. The board of directors wants the officers to plan product development.
3. He wants to speak with my friend about their possible partnership.
4.1 want a lawyer to clarify this matter.
5. The executive wants this manager to start market research.
Exercise}. Answer the questions.
1. What kind of shops in this country do you know?
2. What shops are situated not far from your house?,
3. What goods can be bought there?
4. What specific features do channels of distribution have in this country?
5. What reforms does this country need to reorganize the channels of distribution?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
1. Розничная торговля - это продажа товара конечному потребителю. -
2. В западный странах есть .различные типы торговых учреждений: уиикермапа, супермаркеты, магазины с низкими ценами,. посыл торги и т.д.
3. На этот товар можно получить 10% скидку.
4. Розничный торговец может представить покупателю» длительный кредит.
5. Эта фирма имеет множество торговых точек по всей стране.
6. Розничный торговец выполняет много ааж,ныж функций. ::
7. Я не знаю центр города, мне необходим справочник магазинов.
8. В торговом центре вы найдете все необходимые вам товары.
9. В этом магазине нет бакалейного отдела.
direct method of distribution
1 Producer I --------- --------------(__Consumer |
^"indirect method of distribution ;
j Producer - ]" •{ Wholesaler J- -{_Rctailcr ; H Consumer Exercise 5.
a) speak about the differences between the channels of distribution of this country and western countries.
b) look at.this chart and sayin what industries different methods of distribution are possible.
Grammar Exercises
Exercise I. Change the sentences according lib the model.
Model: 1 should go shopping today;,
I should have gone shopping yesterday.
1. The firm should apply for credit very soon.
2. They should see about the new refrigerator today.
3. I should take my wife shopping a bit later.
4.They should get groceries at the supermarket this afternoon,-,
5. You should order a new car.
6. He should buy a computer today. , . ,
7. He.should speak, with the manager today.
Exercise 2. Change the sentences According to the model.
Model: If there is a shopping ccntcr nearby, we will go (here together. r:
If there had been a shopping center nearby, we would have gone there.
1. If she buys too much, she won’! be able to carry it herself.
2. If there is icccrcam in (his store, we will bring the children some.': . .•
3. If she tries the new boutique today, she will come very late.
4. If the shop offers home delivery, he will ask them to deliver. < . ■
. 5. If you shop downtown, you will find the shopping center.
LESSON 13 PRICING
Text
AJI products and all services have prices. The price depends on different thing such as credit terms, .delivery* trade-inallowance, guarantees, quality and other forms of service, which price can produce the biggest profit during a long period of time. It’s hardly possible lo determine such a price. The price may be too high to produce a large volume or too low to cover costs. No other area of marketing operations has been a subject to bad practice. Many businesses persue unsound price policies for long periods of time and are not aware about it.
Prices can be determined in different ways; For exampie, the prices of meat, cotton and other agricultural prices ,can fee decided in large central market where forces of Supply and demand exist. This is pure price competition. The prices on industriai products (iron; steel,.etc.) are usually decided by large companies. As a rule the amount and pricc of goods sold to large number of buyers is controlled by a few competing sellers. Prices also can be set by the government, usually for different public services - railroads, clecSricily, manufactured gas, bus services, etc.
If demand increases, priccs rise, profits expand and new investment is attracted. But other factors may be involved as wellC'ftricgfj) are related to each othei4 in different ways.
/—-y+tniOTcIjveverything is related in price, sincc the consumer, [ can buy and must pay for everything out of я particular, limited ! , amount of money. *
Active Voc^Jiulary . .
crcdit terms- кредитные условия
4. Зак. 1168
и тд..
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